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THE   USE  OF  VENIRE  AND  ANDARE 

AS  AUXILIARY  VERBS  IN  EARLY 

FLORENTINE   PROSE 

PART  I 
The  Use  with  Past  Participles 

A.    Venire 

WITH   AN  INTRODUCTION 

DISSERTATION 

SUBMITTED    TO   THE   BOARD   OF   UNIVERSITY   STUDIES   OF 

THE  JOHNS  HOPKINS  UNIVERSITY  IN  CONFORMITY 

WITH  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR  THE  DEGREE 

OF  DOCTOR   OF   PHILOSOPHY 

I  goo 


BY 


JAMES  EUSTACE  SHAW 


N.  f  /, 


BALTIMORE: 

JOHN    MURPHY    COMPANY 

1903 


THE   USE  OF  VENIRE  AND  ANDARE 

AS  AUXILIARY  VERBS  IN  EARLY 

FLORENTINE    PROSE 

PART   1 

The  Use  with  Past  Participles 

A.    Venire 

WITH    AN   INTRODUCTION 

DISSERTATION 

SUBMITTED    TO    THE    BOARD    OF    UNIVERSITY    STUDIES   OF 

THE  JOHNS  HOPKINS  UNIVERSITY  IN   CONFORMITY 

WITH  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR  THE  DEGREE 

OF   DOCTOR    OF    PHILOSOPHY 

1900 

BY 

JAMES  EUSTACE  SHAW 


BALTIMORE: 

JOHN    MURPHY    COMPANY 

1903 


AsSs 

CONTENTS.'  rAP\^f^ 


PAOE. 

Texts  Examined  in  this  Monograph 7 

Introduction 9 

I.     Preliminary  Remarks 9 

II.     The  Independent  Use  of  Venire  and  Andare 13 

A.  Venire 13 

1.  Ill  a  material  sense 13 

2.  In  a  metaphorical  sense 15 

a.  Expressing  the  idea  ot  motion  forcibly 15 

b.  Expressing  the  idea  of  motion  less  forcibly 16 

c.  Expressing  the  idea  ^o  come  <o  6f 18 

B.  Andare. 

1.  In  a  material  sense,  meaning  to  go. 

2.  In  a  metapiiorical  sense. 

a.  Expressing  the  idea  of  motion  less  forcibly  than  in  its 

original  use. 

b.  Expressing  the  idea  of  motion  still  less  forcibly. 

III.     The  Use  with  Adjectives,  of  Venire  and  Andare.  20 

A.  Venire 20 

a.  Expressing  the  idea  of  motion  clearly 21 

b.  Expressing  the  idea  ^0  6ecom^ 22 

c.  Expressing  an  idea  approaching  that  of  to  be.  24 

B.  Andare. 

a.  Expressing  the  idea  of  motion  less  forcibly  than  in  its 

original  use. 

b.  Expressing  the  idea  of  motion  still  less  forcibly. 

The  Use  of  Venire  and  Andare  as  Auxiliary  Verbs.  26 

Part  I.     The  Use  with   Past  Participles 26 

A.      Venire 26 

a,   venire  niQQ,mi\g  to  happen  :  expressing  the  Pas- 

'  Portions  not  contained  in  the  present  pnblicalion  are  indicated  by.small  print. 

3 


22830G 


4  Contents. 

sive  :  the  idea  of  motion  weaker  than  in  the 
original  use 29 

b.  Approaching  the  meaning  to  be:  expressing 

the  Passive  :  the  idea  of  motion  still  weaker.     32 

c.  Meaning  to  be :    expressing  the  Pure  Latin 

Passive:  almost  no  idea  of  motion 34 

Remarks: 38 

1.  Parallelism  between  the  use  with  Past  Parti- 

ciples, and  that  with  Adjectives 38 

2.  The  possible  influence  of  the  two  above  uses 

the  one  upon  the  other 39 

3.  Venire  versus  Essere  as  an  auxiliary  for  the 

Passive 40 

4.  Frequence  of  the  appearance  of  the  uses  dis- 

cussed      42 

B.     Andare. 

a.  Expressing  continuity. 

b.  Meaning  to  become. 

Eemark : 

1.  Frequence  of  the  appearance  of  the  uses  discussed. 

2.  Some  examples  of  similar  usage  in  Latin. 

Part  II.    The  use  with  Present  Participles. 

A.  Venire. 

a.  Expressing  an  idea  of  continuity. 

1.  With  verbs  of  progression. 

2.  With  verbs  not  of  progression. 

b.  Meaning  to  bec/in. 

1.  Meaning  to  begin  and  expressing  continuity. 

2.  Meaning  to  begin,  and  expressing  continuity  only  incidentally. 

Remark : 

The  frequence  of  the  appearance  of  the  uses  discussed. 

B.  Andare, 

a.  In  a  material  sense. 

1.  With  verbs  of  motion,  ad<ling  emphasis. 

2.  With  verbs  not  of  motion,  expressing  continuity. 

b.  Jn  a  metaphorioiil  sense. 

1.  With  verbs  of  motion,  expressing  continuity. 

2.  With  verbs  not  of  motion,  expressing  continuity. 

Kemare : 

The  frequence  of  tlie  appearance  of  the  uses  discussed. 


f'onlenia.  6 

Part  III.     Thk  use  with  the  Pkeposition  «  and  the  Infinitive. 

A .  Venire.  • 

a.  Expressing  molioTi  toward  an  object. 

b.  Expres.siiiti/H<nri<i/. 

c.  Expreseiuj;  purpose. 

d.  Used  pleoniusticully. 

1.  Exampli'S  indicating  derivation  of  use  d  from  use  c. 

2.  Examples  not  indicating  derivation. 

B.  Andare. 

a.  Expre.ssing  motion  toward  an  object. 

1.  In  a  material  sense. 

2.  In  a  metapiioricai  sense. 

b.  Expressing  purpose. 

c.  Used  pleonastically. 

1.  Examples  indicating  derivation  of  use  c  from  use  b. 

2.  Examples  not  indicating  derivation. 

Vita 43 


TEXTS  EXAMINED  FOR  THIS  MONOGRAPH. 


Ban.    Fior : — Framnionti    di    un    Libro  di    Banchieri    Fiorentini. 

Ernesto   Monaci,   Crcstomazia   r,    19.     Citta  di    Castello, 

1889. 
Bone   Bene: — Testamento   di    Bone   Benoivcnni    Fiorentino,  del 

1273.     Monaci,  op.  cU.  u,  354. 
Brun.  Rett : — Bninetto  Latini,  Rettorica.     Roma,  1546, 
Cic.  Inv  : — Cicero,  De  Inventioue.     Paris,  1537. 
Brun.  Rett.    Comm : — Brunetto    Latini,    Rettorica    (Commento). 

Roma,  1546. 
Vita  Nuova  : — Dante,  Vita  Nuova.     Witte,  Leipsig,  1896. 
Scrit.  Fior  : — Scritta  Fiorentina  del  1293.    Monaci,  op.  cit.  ii,  425. 
Giamb.  Oros  : — Bono  Giamboni,  Delle  Storie  di  Paolo  Orosio  Con- 

tro  i  Pacjani.     Tassi,  Firenze,  1849. 
Oros: — Pauli  Orosii  Historia  Contra  Paganos.     Koln,  1574. 
Giamb.  Veg : — Bono  Giamboni,   Arte  della  Giierra  di  Vegezio 

Flavio.     Fontani,  Firenze,  1815. 
Veg: — Vegetins  Flavins,  De  Re  Militari,  1523. 
Novell: — II  Xovellino.     Carlwne,  Firenze,  1889. 
Villani : — Giovanni   Villani,  Crouaca.      Firenze,   Giunti,    1545. 

(For  Book  xii,  Muratori,  Rer.  Italic.  Script,  xiii.) 
Cron.  Fior: — Cronaca  Fiorentina  Attribuita  a  Brunetto  Latini. 

Villari,  I   Primi   Due  Secoli  della  Storia  di  Firenze,  ii, 

185-269.     Firenze,  1894. 
Paolino  Fieri : — Paolino  Fieri,  Cronaca  delle  Cose  d'ltalia.    Tartini 

in  Muratori,  op.  cit.  ii. 
Convito  : — Dante,  II  Convito.     Fraticelli,  Firenze,  1861. 
Neri  Strin  : — Cronaca  di  Neri  degli  Strinati.     Biscioni,  Firenze, 

1753. 
Alb.    Piag: — Alberto   della    Piagentina,    La    Consolazione   della 

Filosofia  di  Boezio.     Manni,  Firenze,  1735, 
Boeth  : — Boethius,  De  Consolatione  Philosophiae.     Firenze,  1521. 
Pa*s.  (Pen.  Sup.  Sc.  Um.  Sogni.  Van.): — Jacopo  Passavanti,  Lo 

Si)ecchio  della  Vera  Penitenza.      Polidori,  Firenze,  1856. 

7 


INTRODUCTION. 
I.     Preliminary  Remarks. 

If  there  be  any  value  in  the  following  monograph,  it  will  he 
found  to  consist  chiefly  in  the  account  of  the  signification  of  the 
uses  to  which  venire  and  andare  are  put  as  auxiliary  verbs,  in  early 
Florentine  prose.  These  uses  fall  naturally  into  three  chief  classes  : 
I,  those  arising  from  the  construction  of  venire  and  andare  with 
Past  Participles  ;  II,  those  arising  from  the  construction  of  these 
verbs  with  Present  Participles,  and  III,  those  arising  from  the 
construction  with  the  Preposition  a  and  the  Infinitive  of  other 
verbs.  These  uses  and  their  meanings  have  been  pointed  out  and 
illustrated  hitherto  only  partially,  as  far  as  my  knowledge  goes. 
For  example  the  use  of  venire  and  andare  as  auxiliary  verbs  with 
Present  Participles,  and  that  with  the  preposition  a  and  the  Infini- 
tive, are  mentioned  by  Blanc ;  ^  that  with  Past  Participles,  as  well 
as  the  other  two  by  Diez,"  and  by  Meyer-Liibke,^  the  discussion 
being,  in  each  case,  though  valuable,  of  the  general  kind  which  the 
character  of  the  works  required. 

However,  the  consideration  of  the  state  of  things  regarding  the 
uses  referred  to  has  led  me  also  to  consider  the  question  of  what 
are  the  processes  by  which  these  various  uses  have  been  produced, 
and  to  the  framing  of  certain  hypotheses.  These  hypotheses,  I 
wish  to  say  clearly,  are  beyond  the  possibility  of  demonstration, 
and  I  therefore  make  no  attempt  to  prove  them.  Nevertheless 
considering  that  the  value  of  an  hypothesis  does  not  depend  entirely 
on  the  possibility  of  proving  it,  I  have  made  bold  to  present  these 
of  mine,  and  to  explain  the  reasons  which  have  led  me  to  them. 
These  reasons  are  the  result  of  the  nature  and  meaning  which  I 
attribute  to  the  uses  discussed,  which  to  lay  bare  by  means  of 
examples  is  the  chief  purpose  of  this  monograph. 

^Grammalik  d.  Ital.  Spr.,  Halle,  184-1,  513-14. 
^Grammalik,  III,  205-6;  '2U1-2;  238. 
^Grammaire,  in,  U  308,  309,  312,  315,316,  331. 


10         The  Use  of  Venire  and  Andare  as  Auxiliary  Verbs 

The  hypotheses  regarding  the  syntactical  development  of  the 
use  of  venire  and  andare,  are  as  follows  : 

The  use  of  venire  and  andare  in  metaphorical  senses,  entailed  a 
gradual  weakening  of  the  idea  of  motion  originally  expressed  by 
the  verbs,  and  this  gradual  weakening  of  the  idea  of  motion 
resulted,  by  minor  processes,  as  follows  : 

First : — As  regards  the  use  with  Past  Participles  : 
venire,  from  being  used  independently  to  express  the  idea  to 
come,  came  to  be  used  as  an  auxiliary  to  express  the  idea  to  happen  ; 
and  from  being  used  with  the  meaning  to  happen,  came  to  be  used 
as  an  auxiliary  for  the  Passive  Mood  to  express  tlie  Latin  Passive 
which  we  translate  by  the  English  to  be  with  Past  Participles. 

andare,  from  being  used  independently  to  express  the  idea 
to  go,  came  to  be  used  as  an  auxiliary  to  express  the  idea  of 
duration  of  time  ;  and  from  being  used  to  express  duration  of  time, 
came  to  be  used  as  an  auxiliary  to  express  the  idea  to  become. 

Secondly  : — As  regards  the  use  with  Present  Participles  : 
Venire,  from  being  used  independently  to  express  the  idea 
to  come,  came  to  be  used  as  an  auxiliary  to  express  the  idea  of 
duration  of  time;  and  from  being  used  with  the  meaning  of  dura- 
tion of  time,  came  to  be  used  as  an  auxiliary  to  express  the  idea 
to  begin. 

Andare,  from  being  used  independently  to  express  the  idea 
to  go,  came  to  be  used  as  an  auxiliary  to  express  the  idea  of 
duration  of  time. 

Thirdly : — As  regards  the  use  with  the  Preposition  a  and  the 
Infinitive  of  other  verbs  : 

Venire  (a).  From  being  used  in  sentences  where  a  with  the 
Infinitive  expressed  motion  toward  an  object,  venire  came  to  be  used 
as  an  auxiliary  to  express  an  idea  of  futurity. 

(b).  From  being  used  in  sentences  where  a  with  the  Infinitive 
expressed  the  idea  of  purpose,  venire  came  to  be  used  ploonastically 
as  in  the  English :  I  asked  him  to  come  and  dine  with  mo. 

Andare,  from  being  used  in  sentences  where  a  with  the  Infini- 
tive expressed  the  idea  of  purpose,  came  to  be  used  pleonastically 
as  in  the  English  :  Now  you've  gone  and  done  it. 


In  Early  Florentine  Prose.  11 

I  have  said  that  these  hypotheses  are  incapable  of  demonstration. 
That  is  true  because,  tor  practical  purposes,  we  have  no  Italian 
literature  to  exaiuine,  which  is  earlier  than  the  thirteenth  century. 
Consequently  we  find  a  considerable  number  of  the  uses  of  the  two 
verbs  in  question,  existing  side  by  side  with  other  uses  from  which 
we  may  suppose  them  to  be  derived,  in  the  earliest  literature  we 
have.  Proof  beyond  doubt  that  one  use  of  a  verb  is  derival  from 
another,  requires  that  one  be  able  to  point  to  a  time  in  the  literature 
when  tlie  derived  use  began  ;  as  well  as  to  shew  the  causal  con- 
nexion between  the  original  and  the  derived  uses.  The  first  kind 
of  evidence  is  denied  us  in  nearly  all  cases  ;  an  exception  apparently 
being  the  use  of  venire  as  an  auxiliary  expressing  the  pure  Latin 
Passive,  which  does  not  occur  in  the  earliest  Florentine  prose; 
and  we  are  obliged  to  concentrate  our  attention  upon  the  second 
kind. 

To  forestall  an  objection  :  it  does  not  seem  tenable  that  any 
considerable  number  of  the  Italian  auxiliary  uses  of  venire  and 
andare  have  had  their  development  in  Latin  times,  and  have  been 
handed  down  to  us  ready  made  from  the  Latin,  For  wherever 
similar  uses  appear  in  Latin  literature,  they  are,  for  the  most  part, 
rare,  and  their  meaning  is  not  beyond  doubt. 

To  say  that  the  auxiliary  uses  were  all  made  ready  for  us  in  the 
pre-literary  Italian  period,  and  that  it  is  therefore  impossible  to 
follow  their  development  in  the  literature,  is  no  objection  to  one's 
endeavouring  to  induce  conclusions,  even  from  an  ungrowing  state 
of  these  uses,  concerning  that  development,  but  the  possibility  seems 
unlikely.  A  construction  may  be  used  with  several  significations 
of  which  some  are  derived  from  the  others,  and  the  fact  that  the 
various  significations  exist  side  by  side  is  no  evidence  that  the 
process  of  derivation  of  some  from  the  others  is  no  longer  active. 
When  a  construction  is  first  used  in  a  derived  sense,  the  process  of 
derivation  is  only  begun,  and  it  is  not  ended  until  the  derived 
meaning  is  generally  understood  without  vagueness.  For  example  : 
1-imanere  and  restare  are  used,  especially  popularly,  with  past  parti- 
ciples, as  auxiliaries  for  the  Passive  as,  ^  rimasto  fucilato  senza 
misencordia  ;  but  since  in  many  of  these  cases  there  is  doubt  as  to 
whether  rimanere  and  restare  do  not  retain  some  of  their  indepen- 
dent meaning,  the  process  of  derivation  of  the  use  as  an  auxiliary 


12         The  Use  of  Venire  and  Andare  as  Auxiliary  Verbs 

for  the  Passive,  from  the  independent  use,  cannot  be  said  to  be  as 
yet  complete,  and  perhaps  it  may  never  be  completed. 

Since  such  objections  as  the  above  do  not  seem  fatal,  it  does 
not  seem  unreasonable  to  attempt  to  build  a  plausible  connexion 
among  the  various  uses  of  the  verbs  in  question,  even  without  the 
help  of  chronological  evidence.  For  since  all  these  uses  represent 
mere  modifications  of  the  independent  use  of  venire  and  andare 
with  their  elementary  and  material  meanings  (venire  meaning 
motion  toward  the  speaker,  and  andare  motion  in  any  direction 
except  toward  the  speaker),  it  is  reasonable  to  believe  that  the  uses 
with  the  more  complex  significations  are  derived  from  those  with 
the  elementary  meanings,  and  that  some  causal  connexion  exists 
among  the  more  complex  uses  themselves.  And  if  a  belief  in  such 
a  process  of  development  be  admitted  to  be  reasonable,  it  is  alsa 
natural  to  expect  that  the  uses  with  the  most  complex  significations 
are  derived  from  the  less  complex.  One  has,  then,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  process  of  development,  the  words  used  with  their 
elementary  or  material  meanings,  and,  at  the  end  of  the  develop- 
ment, the  words  used  with  significations  farthest  removed  from  the 
former  (for  example,  on  the  one  hand  venire  meaning  to  come 
materially,  and,  on  the  other  hand  venire  used  as  an  auxiliary 
expressing  the  pure  Latin  Passive) :  and  if  one  can  shew  that  the 
significations  of  the  other  uses  can  be  placed  in  order  so  as  to  lead 
the  thought  gradually  from  the  presumably  original  meanings  to 
the  presumably  last  derived  significations,  and  if"  what  little  one  is 
able  to  conjecture  reasonably  from  the  order  of  the  appearance  of 
the  uses  in  the  earliest  texts,  does  not  conflict  with  the  arrangement 
in  the  order  referred  to,  then  one  has  framed  perhaps  not  a  theory^ 
but  at  any  rate  an  hypothesis,  which  may  or  may  not  be  plausible. 

However,  as  has  already  been  said,  such  hypotheses  are  of 
secondary  importance :  it  is  the  chief  purpose  of  this  monograph 
to  give  an  account  of  the  significations  of  the  chief  uses  of  venire 
and  andare  as  auxiliary  verbs,  in  the  earliest  Florentine  prose. 
No  use  has  been  made  of  texts  ot  poetry,  as  information  derive<l 
from  such  texts  may  l)e  misleading.  I  am  indebtetl  to  Professor 
Pio  Rajna  of  the  Istituto  di  Studi  Superiori  of  Florence,  for 
advising  me  to  use  only  texts  of  prose,  and  take  j^loasnre  in 
acknowledging   here    the   kind    indulgence   of   Professor   Kajna, 


In  Early  Florentine  Prone.  13 

kindness  to  experience  which  I  am  by  no  means  the  first  stiulont 
from  this  country.  The  prose  texts  I  have  used  are  Florentine 
only.  I  have  attempted  to  give  conijilete  lists  of  examples  of  the 
auxiliary  uses  in  question,  but  not  of  the  uses  of  venire  and  andare 
independently  or  with  adjectives,  which  are  mentioned  in  the 
Introduction. 

I  wish  to  express  my  gratitude  to  Professor  Kirby  F.  Smith  of 
the  Johns  Hojikins  University  for  his  kindness  in  heljiing  me  with 
information  regarding  analogous  auxiliary  uses  in  Latin. 

II.    The  Independent  Use  of  Venire  and  Andare. 

A.    Venire. 

1.    In  a  Material  Sense. 

In  Italian,  just  as  in  Latin,  beside  having  the  ordinary  meaning 
to  come,  that  is,  to  move  tov)ard  the  speaker,  venire  was  used  to 
express  the  idea  of  arriving  at,  reaching,  and  this  use  seems  to  be 
as  frequent  in  the  modern  as  in  the  ancient  language.  The  most 
satisfactory  examples  are  those  where  we  are  able  to  com})are  the 
Italian  with  a  Latin  original.  In  the  translation  by  Bono  Giam- 
boni  of  the  history  of  Orosius,  we  find  venire  used  continually  as 
a  translation  of  the  Latin  pervenire  ;  for  example, 

Caio  Gracco,  grande  pczza  per  lui  combattendo  gli  amici,  e  per- 
dendo,  a  grande  fatica  venne  al  ponte  chiamato  Sublicio ;  .  .  .  . 

Giamb.  Oros.  v,  xi,  298. 

Gracchus  diu  pro  se  amicis  pugnantibus  ac  pereuntibus,  aegre  ad 
pontem  Sublicium  peruenit. 

Oros.  V,  XI,  297. 

For  other  examples  compare  : 

Giamb.  Oros.  vi,  xv,  396  ;  vi,  xiv,  394  ;  vr,  1,  353-4  ;  in,  xix, 
174 ;  and  the  corresponding  passages  in  the  original  :  Oros.  vi,  xvi, 
407;  VI,  XV,  405;  vi,  ii,  361-2;  in,  xix,  162. 

Naturally  enough,  we  also  find  venire  as  a  translation  of  the 
Latin  venire  used  to  express  the  same  idea  of  arriving  ;  for  example, 


14         The  Use  of  Venire  and  Andare  as  Auxiliary  Vej'bs 

....  movendo  di  Ponto  n'and6  in  Parzia,  e  alia  cittade  d'Ecbatana, 
ch'  e  capo  del  regno  de'  Parti,  in  cinquantji  di  venne. 

Gianib.  Oros.  vi,  in,  357. 

.  .  .  .,  promouens  e  Ponto  in  Parthiam,  ad  Ecbatanam  urbem  caput 
Parthici  regni  quinquagesimo  die  venit. 

Oros.  VI,  IV,  365. 

Compare  also  Gianib.  Oros.  vii,  xxv,  473 ;  and  Oros.  vii> 
XXII,  492. 

Further  still,  venire  was  used  with  its  simplest  meaning,  to  come, 
in  numbers  of  instances  where  the  Latins  would  use  some  other 
verb  of  motion.  This  is  especially  the  case  in  accounts  of  events, 
where  a  story  is  being  told,  the  purpose  being  to  represent  the 
event  more  graphically ;  for  where  andare,  or  some  other  verb  of 
motion,  would  have  served  the  purpose  of  the  narrative,  venire 
insists  on  both  narrator  and  reader  being,  in  imagination  at  least, 
actually  on  the  spot  where  the  event  is  happening ;  for  example, 

Nel  detto  anno  del  mese  di  Maggio,  e  di  Giugno,  i  Turchi  armaro 
280  tra  barche  grosse,  e  legni  con  pi^  di  quarantamila  Turchi  e 
vennero  per  mare  sopra  Gostantinopoli,  .... 

Villani  x,  cciv,  653-4. 

Again  Giamboni,  in  his  translation  of  Orosius,  tells  us  that  after 
Himilco  the  Carthaginian  had  lost  his  whole  army  in  Sicily  by 
pestilence,  he  returned  home, 

.  .  .  .,  E  con  la  detta  gente  vegnendo  per  la  cittii  piagnendo  e  lut- 
tando,  entro  uel  palagio,  .... 

Giamb.  Oros.  iv,  vii,  210. 

.  .  .  .  :  ad  postremum  vociferans  per  urbem,  tandem  ingressus 
domum,  .... 

Oros.  IV,  VI,  200-1. 

For  other  examples  compare  : 

Giamb.  Oros.  in,  xxii,  178-9  ;  v,  xv,  310-11  ;  vii,  xlvi,  531  ; 
V,  XI,  298  ;  V,  IV,  282-3 ;  Oros.  iii,  xxii,  169  ;  v,  xiv,  309  ;  V, 
V,  281 ;  V,  XII,  297  ;  vii,  XLii,  561. 


In  Early  Florentine  Frosc.  15 

2.   In  a  Metaphorical  Sense. 

Venire  is  used  metaphorically  to  express  the  metaphorical  ideas 
corresponding  to  the  material  ideas  represented  by  its  material  use 
which  has  just  been  illustrated.     These  metaphorical  ideas  are: 

Firaty  The  simple  idea  of  motion  toward  a  state  of  mind  or  being. 

Secondly,  The  idea  of  (H'riving  at  a  state  of  mind  or  being. 

It  seems  to  be  the  use  of  venire  in  the  latter  sense,  that  gave  rise 
to  the  development  which,  in  the  end,  caused  the  verb  to  be  used 
directly  with  adjectives,  in  the  sense  of  to  become. 

The  process  by  which  this  development  proceeded  seems  to  con- 
sist in  the  gradual  weakening  of  the  idea  of  motion  which  attaches 
to  venire.  To  explain  this  more  fully,  I  will  say  that  there  is  a 
connexion,  in  the  process  of  development,  between  the  idea  of  (for 
example),  arriving  at  a  state  of  pride,  and  that  of  becoming  proud. 
The  difference  between  the  two  ideas  lies  in  the  fact  that  in  the 
latter  expression,  the  idea  of  motion  has  become  almost  lost, 
whereas  in  the  former  it  is  still  felt. 

In  all  Florentine  texts,  down  to  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  examples  are  to  be  found  shewing  all  the  stages  of  this 
development.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  use  of  venire  with 
adjectives,  to  express  the  idea  become,  was  not  an  accomplished  fact 
long  before  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  (for  it  had  become 
80  even  in  Latin),  but  that  the  uses  of  venire  which  represent  the 
intermediate  stages  in  the  development,  did  not  die  out  as  soon  as 
they  had  served  the  purpose  of  forwarding  the  development.  In 
fact  they  persisted  long  afterward. 

The  following  examples  will  illustrate  the  process  of  gradual 
weakening  of  the  idea  of  motion  in  the  metaphorical  use  of  venire. 

a.    Expressing  the  idea  of  motion  forcibly. 

.  In  questo  anno  i  principi  della  Mangna  concordevolmente 
elessero  re  della  Mangna  Adolfo  conte  di  Nasso,  ma  no  venne  a  la 
benedizione  imperiale. 

Cron.  Fior.  66,  1,  12. 

.  Cosi  cominciando  ad  errare  la  mia  fantasia,  venni  a  quel/o,  che 
non  sapea  dove  io  fossi ; 

Vita  Nuova.  xxiii,  20. 


16  The  Use  of  Venire  and  Andare  as  Auxiliary  Vei'bs 

.  E  Seneca  dice :  Imper5  malagevolmente  vegnamo  alia  salute 
della  sauita,  perch^  non  conosciaino  essere  infermi. 

Pass.  Sup.  VII,  225. 

For  other  examples  compare  : 

Giamb.  Oros.  vi,  IV,  259,  and  Oros.  vi,  V,  367 ;  Novell,  i,  4 ; 
Villani  vii,  x,  193;  Piag.  Boez.  iii,  64-5,  and  Boeth.  in,  27  b. 

The  above  examples  shew  venire,  used  in  a  metaphorical  sense, 
expressing  the  idea  of  motion  almost  as  forcibly  as  when  it  is  used 
in  a  material  sense.  The  following  examples  will  illustrate  the 
use  of  venire  still  in  a  metaphorical  sense,  but  with  the  idea  of 
motion  somewhat  weakened.  However,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  in  all  cases  where  venire  is  used  independently,  that  is  where 
it  is  not  an  auxiliary  verb,  there  must  be  a  considerable  idea  of 
motion,  so  that  it  will  need  some  degree  of  attention  to  see  that  in 
the  cases  cited,  the  idea  of  motion  is  indeed  somewhat  weakened. 

b.    Expressing  the  idea  of  motion  less  forcibly. 

.  .  .  .,  Messer  Jacopo,  e  Messer  Piero  figliuoli  di  Messer  Gianni 
della  Colonna  con  tutti  gli  altri  Colonnesi  vennero  alia  miseri- 
cordia,  .... 

Paolino  Pieri.  53,  12. 

Al  costui  tempo  tornaro  li  Fiorentini  ad  oste  a  Siena,  e  puosersi 
a  campo  a  monte  Reggione,  a  stando  ivi,  li  Sanesi  vennero  alle 
Gommandamenta  loro,  .... 

Paolino  Pieri.  23,  28-29. 

In  these  two  examples,  venire  alia  misericordia  and  venire  alle 
commandamenta  are  two  phrases  corresponding  pretty  closely  to 
the  English  phrase :  come  to  terms,  and  which  represent  an  idea 
containing  little  of  an  idea  of  motion.  To  substitute  the  expression 
agree  to  terms,  for  come  to  terms,  would  not  be  strctoiiing  the  mean- 
ing very  far.  In  the  second  example,  this  lack  of  the  idea  of 
motion  is  emphasized  by  the  phrase:  e  stando  ivi;  that  '\s,  tvhile 
they  were  there,  the  Sanesi  came  to  unconditional  terms. 

.  Ma  i  Fiorentini  ordinarono  clio  i  Sanesi  niandassoro  i  loro 
cavalieri  alia  guardia  de'  Guelfi  di  Pisa,  ....  onde  molto  furou 


In  Early  Florentine  Prose.  17 

ripreai  da'  Genouesi,  e  Lucchesi  per  lo  rompere  chc  fecero  di  loro 
proniessa,  e  saramonto  per  iscaiupare  Pisa,  ma  hebhoii  da'  Pisani  il 

merito,  e  il  guiderone  che  a  cid  si  venia 

Villani  vii.  xcvii,  267. 

il  merito,  e  il  yidderdone  che  a  cid  si  venia  means  :  the  credit  and 
reward  which  was  due  for  this  ;  that  is,  which  icould  righifidly  come. 
This  reminds  one  of  the  American  expression :  the  money  that  is 
coming  to  me,  that  is,  tohich  is  due  to  me.  Evidently  the  idea  of 
motion  expressed   by  venire,  is  much   weakened   in  this  sentence. 

For  other  examples  compare  :  " 

Brun.  Rett.  Comra.  82;  54;  Giamb.  Oros.  in,  i,  130;  in,  i, 
132  ;  Oros.  ni,  i,  120 ;  in,  i,  122  ;  Villani  vii,  xxvir,  208 ;  vn, 
xcvin,  257;  Pass.  Pen.  in,  iv,  60;  Pass.  Sup.  in,  193. 

The  above  examples  shew  venire  used  in  a  metaphorical  sense, 
the  idea  of  motion  not  being  so  necessary  to  the  sense  as  it 
was  originally ;  that  is,  here  the  idea  of  motion  is  weaker  than 
it  was. 

The  examples  I  am  now  about  to  give  will  also  shew  venire 
used  metaphorically,  with  a  somewhat  weak  idea  of  motion,  but  in 
addition  they  will  illustrate  the  approach  of  the  idea  expressed  by 
venire  used  independently,  to  the  idea  conveyed  by  venire  when 
used  directly  with  adjectives  in  the  sense  of  to  come  to  be  or  to 
become. 

Although  the  idea  expressed  in  these  examples  does,  I  believe, 
approach  very  close  to  that  expressed  by  venire  with  adjectives,  the 
syntactical  form  necessarily  could  shew  no  such  gradual  change. 
From  venire  in  tanta  grandezza  to  venire  tanto  grande,  is  a  great 
stride,  as  regards  the  construction,  and  it  is  necessarily  so,  for  there 
is  no  imaginable  way  by  which  the  form  could  be  so  altered  as  to 
correspond  to  the  gradually  developing  idea.  While  the  idea 
expressed  by  venire  in  tanta  grandezza,  had,  in  reality,  come  to  be 
very  similar  to  that  expressed  by  venire  tanto  grande,  (owing  to  the 
metaphorical  use  of  venire,  and  to  its  many  uses  where  it  had  lost 
much  of  its  idea  of  motion)  the  syntactical  form  had  undergone  no 
change,  and  remained  the  same  as  in  those  cases  where  venire  had 
undergone  no  such  development  in  meaning. 


18         The  Use  of  Venire  and  Andare  as  Auxiliary  Verbs 

By  the  following  examples,  I  am  attempting  to  shew  that  venire 
came  to  have  a  meaning  very  similar  to  that  of  to  come  to  be,  while 
still  used  quite  independently  of  other  parts  of  speech  ;  that  is, 
while  it  preserved  the  old  syntactical  construction  proper  to  a  v^erb 
of  motion.  Later  on  I  shall  discuss  the  use  of  venire  with  adjec- 
tives, in  the  sense  of  to  come  to  be  and  to  become,  that  is,  the  use  of 
venire  with  a  similar  meaning  to  that  I  am  about  to  illustrate, 
expressed  by  another  construction. 

c.    Expressing  the  idea  to  come  to  be. 

.  .  .  . ;  e  venuto  in  povertd,  non  potendo  comparire  cogli  altri 
cavalieri,  com'  era  usato,  divenne  a  tanta  tristizia  e  malinconia,  che 
si  volea  disperare. 

Pass.  Pen.  in,  iv,  67-8. 

venuto  in  povertd  =  come  to  be  poor.  To  translate  literally : 
come  to  poverty,  would  indicate  too  strong  an  idea  of  motion,  since 
the  prevailing  thought  is  the  being  poor,  not  the  arriving  at  the 
state  of  poverty,  as  is  shewn  by  the  context. 

.  .  .  .,  e  a  Tissaferne,  re  di  quelli  di  Media,  n'ando.  Al  quale, 
per  lo  suo  senno  e  bella  favella  in  grazia  venuto,  diede  per  con- 
siglio,  .... 

Giamb.  Oros.  ii,  xv,  108. 

The  Latin  here  is  :  ....,<&  ad  Tissaphernem  in  Mediam  conces- 
sit :  cui  statim  adcommodato  ingenio  &  apto  eloquii  gratia  familior 

factus,  persuadet,  ne,  etc 

Oros.  II,  XV,  100. 

The  Latin  original,  which  uses  the  adjectival  phrase :  famiUor 
/actus,  shews  how  weak  the  idea  of  motion  is  for  venire,  and  also 
how  similar  the  idea  of  the  Italian  translation  is  to  that  which 
would  be  expressed  by  venire  with  an  adjective ;  as,  venuto  gra- 
devole. 

.  Serses,  per  la  battaglia  in  Grecia  mal  fatta  venuto  in  dispregio 
de'  suoi,  fue  in  Grecia  per  Artabauo  ingannato  e  morto. 

Giamb.  Oros.  ii,  xi,  96. 


In  Early  Florentine  Prose.  19 

The  Latin  here  is  :  .  Xerxes  hollo  in  Grecia  infeliciter  gesto, 

contemptihilis  sms /actus,  per  Artahaniiin  praefectum  smim  in  rcgia 

circoniientus  occiditur. 

Oros.  II,  XI,  89. 

The  translation  of  contemptibilis  fadus  by  venuto  in  dispregio, 
shews  how  close  the  idea  of  the  Italian  is  to  that  which  wonld  be 
expressed  by  venire  with  an  adjective.  The  idea  of  motion  con- 
veyed by  venire  is  evidently  almost  lost. 

.  Igli  altri  per  questo  pericolo  ispaventati,  levate  le  vele,  e 
vogliendo  fuggire  la  ove  il  vento  li  menasse,  non  abbiendo  vento 
a  qnella  stagione,  non  sappiendo  che  si  fare  vennero  in  ischernie 
de'  Romani. 

Giamb.  Oros.  vi,  vii,  369. 

The  Latin  is :  .  Alii  hoc  periculo  territi,  expansis  velis  qua 
ventus   intenderent  fugire  conati,   cessante  mox   ventu  destituti, 

ludibrio  fuere  Roraanis. 

Oros.  VI,  viii,  376. 

In  this  example,  as  in  the  last  one,  the  idea  of  motion  expressed 
by  venire  seems  relatively  insignificant.  The  meaning  of  the 
Italian  is  :  came  to  he  despised  by  the  Romans. 

The  following  two  examples  will  illustrate  my  meaning,  in  a 
new  way.    The  first  one  has  been  used  already  for  another  purpose  :* 

.  .  .  . ;  e  venuto  in  poverta,  non  potendo  comparire  cogli  altri 
cavalieri,  com'  era  usato  divenne  a  tanta  tristizia  e  malinconia,  che 
si  volea  disperare. 

Pass.  Pen.  iii,  iv,  67-8. 

Here  we  have  divenire,  a  verb  which  later  came  to  mean  nothing 
but  to  become,  and  which  always  carries  this  idea  in  one  way  or  in 
another,  used  in  the  same  sense  as  that  in  which  venire  is  used  in 
the  examples  just  given.  The  sense  of  the  example  would  not  be 
altered  at  all,  if  we  had  instead  of  divenne,  "  venne  a  tanta  tristizia 
e  malinconia." 

^Cf.  p.  18. 


20         The  Use  of  Venire  and  Andare  as  Auxiliary  Vei'bs 

Another  such  example  is  : 

Et  nota  die  distrutti  sono  colore,  che  soliano  essere  in  alto 
«tato,  &  in  riccheza,  &  poi  divengono  in  tanta  miseria  che  vanno 

mendicando. 

Brun.  Rett.  Comm.  r,  16. 

Here  divengono  in  tanta  miseria,  is  exactly  the  same  as  :  vengono 
in  tanta  miseria,  venire  having  come,  in  uses  such  as  these,  to  have 
the  same  meaning  as  divenire,  that  is,  to  come  to  be,  the  two  were 
sometimes  confused. 

For  other  examples  compare  : 

Cron.  Fior.  77,  16  ;  12,  16 ;  Giamb.  Oros.  iv,  x,  223 ;  i,  xxi, 
62  ;  VII,  XLiv,  526 ;  iv,  xvii,  243  ;  and  Oros.  iv,  ix,  213  ;  i,  xxi, 
€0 ;  vii,  XL,  555  ;  iv,  xvi,  234  ;  Villani  iv,  xiii,  80  ;  V,  ix,  107  ; 
VI,  LI,  156 ;  X,  CLXXXiii,  643 ;  vi,  xcii,  182 ;  xi,  xxxix,  709  ; 
Pass.  Sup.  VII,  230-1. 

III.     The  Use  with   Adjectives   of   Venire  and   Andare. 

A.    Venire. 

I  have  attempted  to  shew  that  the  Italian  verb  venire  being  used 
in  the  sense  of  to  arrive  at,  to  reach,  when  used  metaphorically,  and 
gradually  losing  the  force  of  the  idea  of  motion  which  it  expressed, 
came  to  have  the  meaning  of  to  come  to  be. 

It  seems  that  venire  could  not  have  been  used  with  adjectives  at 
first  except  in  this  sense,  for  it  is  impossible  to  suppose  the  verb 
to  have  been  used  in  close  construction  with  adjectives  while  retain- 
ing its  simplest  signification  of  motion  toward  the  speaker.  To 
come  rich,  strictly  speaking,  has  no  meaning,  unless  the  verb  is 
understood  to  be  independent  of  the  adjective.  Now  starting  with 
the  use  of  venire  as  independent  of  the  adjective,  for  examjile,  to 
come,  rich,  meaning  to  come  and  to  be  rich  at  the  same  time,  it  is 
easy  to  see  that  with  the  new  meaning  acquired  by  venire  in  the 
manner  lately  illustrated,  that  of  to  come  to  be,  a  close  construction 
of  the  verb  with  the  adjective  is  j)ossible.  Now  this  use  we  find 
to  be  common  in  our  texts,  and  to  appear  even  in  Latin. 


In  Early  Florentine  Prose.  21 

When,  however,  this  change  in  meaning  had  come  to  pass,  and 
venire  was  used  in  close  construction  with  adjectives,  the  idea  of 
motion  originally  conveyed  by  the  verb,  was  not  entirely  done 
away  with.  The  meaning  was  to  come  to  be.  The  metaphorical 
idea  of  motion  was  still  there.  The  tendency  to  become  weaker, 
however,  still  existed,  and,  as  in  the  independent  uses  of  venire^  so 
in  its  construction  with  adjectives,  we  see  the  idea  of  motion 
gradually  becoming  fainter  and  fainter,  until  in  a  few  cases,  it 
seems  to  disappear  almost  altogether;  at  this  stage  it  apparently 
means  no  more  than  simply  to  become  in  a  sense  not  far  removed 
from  to  be. 

To  put  this  briefly  :  from  the  time  venire  begins  to  be  used  in 
the  sense  of  to  arrive  at,  to  reach,  and  is  used  metaphorically,  there 
is  a  gradual  weakening  of  the  force  of  the  idea  of  motion  attaching 
to  the  verb,  and  we  see  the  culmination  of  the  tendency,  in  the  last 
development  of  the  use  with  adjectives. 

We  have  something  of  a  parallel  to  the  final  weakening  of  the 
idea  of  motion  expressed  by  venire  wnth  adjectives,  in  the  case  of 
the  English  verb  :  to  become.  The  original  meaning  of  to  become 
seems  to  be  to  come  to  be.  In  modern  use,  however,  there  is  a 
difference  between  the  meaning  of  the  two  expressions,  the  former 
having  less  of  an  idea  of  motion  than  the  latter,  so  that  we 
hear  sentences  as,  he  became  imprisoned,  in  the  sense  of  he  was 
imprisoned. 

To  illustrate  the  weakening  of  the  idea  of  motion,  expressed  by 
venire  with  adjectives,  I  will  give  a  few  examples  shewing  the  idea 
of  motion  as  distinct  as  it  is  ever  found  in  this  construction,  then 
two  or  three  other  examples  where  this  idea  seems  to  be  still 
further  weakened,  and,  lastly,  a  few  where  the  idea  of  motion 
seems  to  be  almost  lost : — 

a.    Expressing  the  idea  of  motion  clearly. 

.  .  .  .,  e  per  fermo  mostrava  di  dover  venire  il  migliore  uomo  di 
sua  casa. 

Paolino  Fieri,  60,  22. 

Translation  :  He  gave  sure  promise  that  he  would  come  to  be  the 
best  man  of  his  house. 


22         The  Use  of  Venire  and  Andare  as  Auxiliary  Verbs 

.  .  .  .,  peroche'  Fiorentini  erano  venuti  moUo  superbi,  per  le  vit- 
torie  hauute  sopra'  loro  vicini,  e  tra  loro  molto  ingrati  a  Dio,  .... 

Villani,  v,  viii,  106. 

Translation  :  .  .  .  .,  for  the  Florentines  had  come  to  be  very  proud^ 
because  of  their  victories  over  their  neighbors,  and  among  them- 
selves, ungrateful  towards  God,  .... 

For  other  examples  compare  : 

Paolino  Fieri  49,  40;  Villani  vi,  i,  124;  v,  xxr,  112. 

The  Italian  expression  :  venire  meiio,  which  originally  meant 
simply  to  become  less ;  that  is,  to  begin  to  fail,  has  a  development 
parallel  to  that  of  venire  with  adjectives.  At  first,  venire  in  venir 
meno  conveyed  a  clear  idea  of  motion  ;  in  other  cases,  presumably 
later,  the  idea  of  motion  almost  disappeared. 

The  word  meno  seems  to  have  been  affected  by  its  use  in  this 
phrase,  so  that  it  is  used  as  meaning  lacking,  loanting}  The  follow- 
ing are  a  few  examples  where  the  idea  of  motion  is  still  expressed  : 

.  .  .  .,  lo  mio  signore  Amore,  la  sua  merce,  ha  posta  tutta  la  mia 
beatitudine  in  quello,  che  non  mi  puote  venir  meno. 

Vita  Nuova  xviii,  1,  25. 

venir  meno  =  come  to  be  lacking  ;  that  is,  come  to  fail, 

.  .  .  . ;  come  interviene  a  molte  persone  che  o  per  vergogna  o  per 
temenza  (....)  perdonsi  e  vengon  ^  meno,  che  smemorano  e  dimen- 
ticano  i  peccati  che  in  prima  aveano  pensati  di  dire,  .... 

Pass.  Pen.  v,  1,  95. 

Vengon  si  meno  =  come  to  be  so  lacking  (in  strength). 

For  other  examples  compare  : 

Villani  xi,  i,  674 ;  Giamb.  Oros.  vi,  xviii,  408,  and  Oros.  vi, 
XIX,  437. 

b.    Expressing  the  idea  to  become. 

.  Piero  tavoliere  fu  grande  uomo  d'avere,  e  venne  ianto  vmeri- 
cordioao,  che  prima  tutto  I'avere  dispese  a'povori  per  Dio.     E  poi 

^Cf.  Tobler,  Verm.  Beitr.  1899.     in,  102. — '' ilal.  venir  main,  aiiflioren,  aus- 
gehn,  auch  ohnmachtig  werden." 


In  Early  Florentine  Prose.  23 

quando  tiitto  ebbe  dato,  ed  clU  si  fece  vendere,  ed  il  prezzo  diede  a' 
poveri  tutto. 

Novell.  XIV,  19. 

Here,  as  is  shewn  by  the  context,  the  whole  emphasis  of  the 
sentence  is  laid  on  the  fact  of  the  man's  being  so  merciful  that  he 
did  all  the  things  which  follow  ;  there  is  no  emphasis  on  the  coming 
to  be  merciful.  The  idea  of  motion,  then,  plays  here  a  very 
inconspicuous  part,  and  is  hardly  expressed.  The  meaning  of 
venire  seems  to  be  to  become. 

.  . . .;  e  gia  cominciauano  a  venire  possenti  i  Frescobaldi,  e  Bardi, 
e  Mozi,  ma  di  picciolo  comiuciamento. 

Villani  v,  xxxix,  121. 

It  may  be  urged  that  in  this  example  the  translation  ought  to 
be :  And  already  the  Frescobaldi,  etc.,  ....  were  beginning  to 
come  to  be  powerful,  etc.,  but  it  seems  to  me  that  the  emphasis  is 
not  on  the  process  by  which  they  became  powerful,  but  on  their 
being  powerful ;  the  fact  that  the  beginnings  of  their  power  are 
mentioned,  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  idea  of  motion,  which  is 
hardly  expressed.  I  should  be  inclined  to  translate :  were 
beginning  to  become  powerful. 

The  following  examples  of  the  expression  venir  meno  shew  a  less 
evident  idea  of  motion  than  those  given  above. 

.  Uno  della  Marca  and6  a  studiare  a  Bologna.  Vennerli  meno 
le  spese. 

Novell.  XLVii,  54. 

Vennerli  meno  le  spese  =  his  spending-money  became  lacking. 
There  is  no  apparent  idea  here  of  coming  to  be  wanting  or  to  fail. 

.  .  .  .,  e  quasi  sbigottito  della  bella  difesa  che  mi  era  venuta 
meno,  .... 

Vita  nuova  vii,  1,  4. 

Translation  :  and  as  if  dismayed  on  account  of  the  good  defence 
which  had  become  lacking  to  me. 

For  other  examples  compare  : 


24         The  Use  of  Venire  and  Andare  as  Auxiliary  Verbs 

Giamb.  Oros.  rv,  vii,  215 ;  Oros.  iv,  VI,  204  ;  Villani  vi,  xciii, 
183 ;  IV,  X,  78  ;  iv,  x,  78  ;  Pass.  Pen.  iv,  IV,  89  ;  Giamb.  Veg. 
I,  2,  8,  and  Veg.  i,  ii,  4. 

c.    Expressing  an  idea  approaching  that  of  to  be. 

.  .  .  .?  certo  chi  hauea  forza,  &  potere  sopra  altri  molti  non 
haueria  patito  di  uenire  pari  di  coloro,  cui  potea  signorigiare,  se 
non  I'hauesse  mosso  sennata  &  soave  parlatura,  .... 

Brun.  Lat.  Rett.  10. 

The  Latin  is :  .  Profecto,  nemo  nisi  graui  ac  soaui  commotus 

oratione,  cum  viribus  plurimum  posset,  ad  ius  voluisset  sine  vi 

descendere,  ut  inter  quos  posset  excellere,  cum  iis  se  pateretur 

aequari, .... 

Cic.  De  luv.  I,  Op.  Rhet.  42B. 

Here  the  translation  of  aequari  by  venire  pari,  shews  little  of 
any  idea  of  motion  in  venire. 

.  .  .  . :  I  malleoli  siccome  saette  sono,  ed  ove  s'appiccano,  peroche 

arzenti  vengono,  ogni  cosa  ardono. 

Giamb.  Veg.  iv,  18,  163. 

The  Latin  is :  Malleoli  velut  sagittae  sunt,  et  ubi  adhaeserint 
[quia  ardentes  sunt)  universa  conflagrant. 

Veg.  Ill,  XVIII,  128. 

Here  again,  ardentes  sunt  being  translated  by  arzenti  vengono , 
seems  to  shew  an  absence  of  the  idea  of  motion. 

For  other  examples  compare  : 

Giamb.  Oros.  iv,  x,  223;  and  Oros.  iv,  ix,  213;  Villani  x, 
ccxxii,  665. 

The  following  examples  of  the  expression  :  venir  meno  seem  to 
shew  an  equal  loss  of  the  idea  of  motion  expressed  by  venire : 

.  .  .  .,  e  delli  antichi  nomati  di  sopra  sono  calali,  e  tali  venuti 

meno,  .... 

Villani  iv,  xiii,  80. 


In  Early  Florentine  Prose.  26 

This  example  differs  from  others  such  as  oiu;  from  Villaiii, 
referred  to  above,  which  says  :...."  venue  meno  il  detto  lignaj^gio." 
The  distinction  is  that  here  it  is  not  a  race  of  people,  which  is 
spoken  of  as  dying  out,  but  single  individuals  who  have  died. 
Hence  there  seems  to  be  almost  no  idea  of  motion  in  this  example. 

.  Questa  e  orazione,  per  la  quale  i  Fiorentini  veglievoli  con  ani- 
mata  divozione  a'  j)rogonitori  tnoi,  ogualmente  e  a  te,  la  tna  celsitu- 
dine  amantissimameute  destano,  acci5  die  quella  desta,  tntte  le  nebbie 
passino  via,  e  al  tutto  vengano  meno. 

Villani  xii,  cviii,  987. 

"  Acci5  che  etc."  =  ,  so  that,  when  that  is  aroused,  all  the  mists 
may  pass  away,  and  entirely  be  gone. 

For  other  examples,  compare : 

Villani  xii,  viii,  883;  xii,  xcv,  973;  xii,  civ,  982;  Pass. 
Sup.  VII,  230. 

To  sum  up  briefly :  venire  having,  by  processes  described  above, 
acquired  the  meaning :  to  come  to  he,  was  used  with  adjectives  in 
this  sense.  The  weakening  of  the  idea  of  motion  expressed  by 
venire,  however,  which  had  already  begun,  continued  in  the  use 
with  adjectives,  so  that  at  last  it  seems  to  be  lost,  and  in  some  cases 
venire  seems  to  be  almost  equivalent  to  to  he. 


THE  USE  OF  VENIRE  AND  ANDARE  AS 
AUXILIARY  VERBS. 

Part  I.     With  Past  Participles. 
A.    Venire. 

I  have  traced  the  hypothetical  process  of  development  by  which 
venire  came  to  be  used  with  adjectives,  with  the  meaning  to  become, 
and  almost  even  to  be,  the  idea  of  motion  being  almost  lost  in  the 
latter  case.  There  is  room  for  doubt  as  to  whether  the  idea  of 
motion  is  ever  actually  lost  or  not,  but  at  any  rate,  it  becomes  so 
weak,  in  the  use  with  adjectives,  as  to  be  all  but  lost,  so  that  venire 
degno,  for  example,  in  some  cases  seems  to  mean  little  more  than  to 
he  worthy.  I  now  come  to  my  proper  subject :  The  use  of  venire 
with  Past  Participles. 

With  past  participles,  venire  comes  to  be  used  as  an  auxiliary 
verb  expressing  the  Passive  voice,  supplanting  eventually,  to  a 
great  extent,  the  common  auxiliary  for  the  Passive,  essere.  The 
question  I  am  about  to  discuss  is :  by  what  process  of  develop- 
ment, ve7iire  came  to  be  used  in  this  way. 

At  first  sight,  it  may  seem  to  others,  as  it  once  seemed  to  me, 
that  the  use  of  venire  with  Past  Participles,  to  express  the  Passive, 
is  an  outgrowth  of  the  use  of  this  verb  with  adjectives,  as  discussed 
above.  In  other  words,  venire,  having  come  to  mean  become  (and 
approaching  to  be)  with  adjectives,  was  then  used  with  past  parti- 
ciples, with  the  same  meaning.  After  more  thought,  however,  I 
have  abandoned  this  idea.     My  reasons  are  as  follows : 

First.  The  use  of  venire  with  adjectives,  in  the  sense  of  to  become, 
rather  than  more  frequent  with  the  passing  of  time,  became  more 
and  more  rare,  and  has  at  last  been  almost  entirely  supplanted  by 
divenire  and  diventare. 

Secondly.     Although  examples  of  the  use  of  venire  with  Past 

Participles,  with  a  meaning  other  than  its  elementary  meaning,  to 

come,  are  rare  in  early  texts,  yet  examples  are  to  be  found  in  the 

earliest  texts  we  have,  and  have  become  more  and  more  frequent 

26 


In  Early  Florentine  Prose.  27 

until  at  present  vei\ire  rivals  essere  in  freqnency  of  nse  with  Past 
Participles,  as  an  auxiliary  expressing  the  pure  Latin  Passive. 

Besides  this,  I  may  say  that  tliere  are  indications  which  lead  us 
to  believe  that  the  use  of  venire  to  express  the  Passive,  developed 
along  a  line  peculiar  to  itself,  although,  as  I  shall  try  to  shew  later, 
the  develepnient  seems  to  be  identical  with  that  of  the  use  with 
adjectives,  up  to  a  certain  point. 

When  we  come  to  consider  the  use  of  venire  with  Past  Part  ici- 
cles, expressing  the  Passive,  with  the  purpose  before  us  of  dis- 
covering the  process  by  which  an  ordinary  verb  of  motion,  such  as 
venire,  came  to  be  used  in  so  singular  a  way,  it  is  obvious  that  the 
first  thing  to  which  we  must  give  our  attention  is  the  force  which 
the  verb  has  in  this  use.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that,  in  modern 
Italian,  venire  as  a  Passive  auxiliary  verb  expresses  the  Latin 
Passive.  Venire  ucciso  means  to  be  killed  in  the  sense  of  the  Ger- 
man wo'den  getbdtei,  of  the  Latin  occidi.  In  the  latest  texts, 
however,  which  my  investigation  includes,  that  is,  those  of  the 
latter  half  of  the  fourteenth  century,  venire,  as  an  auxiliary  ex- 
pressing the  Passive,  far  more  frequently  thfn  not,  seems  to  retain 
more  of  an  idea  of  motion  than  is  expressed  by  the  Latin  Passive. 
For  example, 

....  E  se  alcuna  volta  gli  venisse  predetta  alcuna  di  quelle 
(cose  casual i),  non  sarebbe  pero  che  n'avesse  scienza,  .  .  .  ., 

Pass.  Sc.  300. 

venisse  predetta  seems  to  mean  :  should  happen  to  be  foretold,  and 
has  not  yet  cast  off  as  much  of  the  idea  of  motion,  as  has  the 
auxiliary  for  the  pure  Passive. 

The  prima  facie  conclusion  from  this  fact  is  that  the  loss  of  the 
idea  of  motion  is  in  some  way  connected  with  the  modification  of 
the  meaning  of  venire,  which  modification  fitted  it  to  be  used  to 
express  the  Passive.  And,  indeed,  this  is  a  conclusion  which  is 
obvious  without  any  knowledge  of  texts,  for  it  is  evident  that 
venire  in  its  passage  from  the  meaning  to  come,  to  the  meaning  to 
he,  even  in  the  sense  of  the  Latin  Passive,  must  have  lost  the 
greater  part  of  its  idea  of  motion.  Nevertheless,  however  closely 
the  loss  of  the  idea  of  motion  may  be  connected  with  the  change  of 


28  The  Use  of  Venire  and  Andare  as  Auxiliary  Verbs 

meaning  of  the  verb,  it  is  plain  that  without  some  other  cause  the 
transition  from  to  come  to  to  be  would  never  have  taken  place. 
For  a  gradual  loss  of  the  idea  of  motion,  by  itself,  would  only 
result  in  the  final  disappearance  of  the  verb  venire. 

We  have,  therefore,  to  discover  what  may  be  supposed  to  be  the 
additional  causes  which,  together  with  the  gradual  loss  of  the  idea 
of  motion,  brought  about  the  use  of  venire  as  an  auxiliary  express- 
ing the  Passive,  with  the  meaning  to  be,  and,  also  we  have  to  see 
in  what  manner  all  these  forces  affected  the  verb,  so  as  to  bring 
about  that  result.  The  only  apparent  method  by  which  our  object 
may  be  reached,  is  that  of  examining  the  various  uses  of  venircy 
from  the  elementary,  independent  use  meaning  to  come,  to  the  use 
expressing  the  Passive,  which  we  are  treating. 

We  have  already  in  the  preceding  pages  seen  how 

First,  venire  was  used  independently  and  materially  in  the 
sense  to  arrive  at,  to  reach  ; 

Secondly,  venire  was  used  independently  and  metaphorically, 
both  in  the  elementary  sense  of  to  come,  and  in  the  other  sense  of 
to  arrive  at,  to  reach  ; 

Thirdly.  In  this  metaphorical  use,  venire  seems  to  have  begun 
to  lose  the  idea  of  motion  originally  attaching  to  it,  so  that  in 
expressions  such  as  :  venire  in  disgrazia — to  come  to  he  disfavoured  ;^ 
venire  in  grazia — to  come  to  be  favoured  ;  venire  in  orrore — to  come 
to  be  hated,  etc.,  the  idea  of  motion  is  already  somewhat  weakened, 
since  the  most  important  thought  expressed  is  the  state  in  which 
the  subjects  are  (after  their  having  come  into  this  given  condition) 
and  not  the  process  by  which  they  arrived  at  that  state. 

In  the  construction  with  Past  Participles,  venire  meant,  originally, 
nothing  more  than  to  come:  venire  ferito  meant  merely,  to  come  and 
to  he  wounded  at  the  same  time,  both  verbs  keeping  their  respective 
independent  meaning,  and  each  its  full  force.  When  venire  came 
to  be  used  in  the  sense  of  to  arrive  at,  to  reach,  this  did  not  affect 
the  meaning  of  that  simplest  of  constructions  :  venire  ferito  meant 
then  to  arrive  and  to  be  ivounded  at  the  same  time.  When,  how- 
ever, venire  began  to  be  used  in  a  metaphorical  sense,  then  appar- 
ently, the  meaning  of  the  construction  began  to  change.  With  the 
new  idea  conveyed  by  the  verb,  expressions  such  as  venire  ucciso, 
became  possible,  where  the  idea  expressed  could  not  possibly  be : 


In  Early  Florentine  Prose.  29 

to  come  and  to  be  killed  at  the  same  time.  Metaphorical  expressions 
too,  such  as  venire  predetto,  venire  JidlHo,  etc.,  wouM  necessarily 
indicate  a  closer  logical  relation  between  the  two  verbs,  as  they 
stood  side  by  side,  and  a  united  meanini^  which  was  entirely  differ 
ent  from  any  idea  formerly  expressed  by  the  construction. 

Now,  considering  that  venire  had  come  to  be  used  metaphorically, 
and  with  the  meaning,  to  annve  at,  to  reach,  an  apj)ropriate  ques- 
tion is :  What  should  we  expect  the  idea,  as  conveyed  by  the  old 
construction  of  ue?iiVe  with  the  Past  Participle,  to  he,  venire  having 
been  thus  transforme<l  in  meaning?  What  is  the  logical  result  of 
a  construction  such  as  ;  for  example,  vennefatto — came  done? 

The  two  ideas  represented  are  : 

First.     A  certain  thing  was  done. 

Secondly.     It  arrived  done. 

When  I  consider  what  the  force  of  to  arrive,  is,  when  used  in 
a  metaphorical  sense,  the  only  idea  which  I  can  think  of,  is  that 
represented  by  the  French  arriver,  meaning  to  happen.  Now 
putting  this  meaning  for  venire,  and  adding  the  meaning  of  fatto, 
I  should  answer  the  question  asked  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  by 
saying  that,  under  the  given  conditions,  venne  fatto  would  have  a 
meaning  very  much  akin  to  that  of:  happened  done,  or  (in  idiomatic 
English) — came  to  pass.  Now,  this  is  exactly  the  idea  which  seems 
to  be  conveyed  by  vennefatto  in  the  examples  we  have,  where  venire 
has  not  yet  come  to  be  used  as  a  pw'e  Passive  auxiliary  verb.  The 
following  examples  of  venire  in  the  earliest  stage  of  the  develop- 
ment of  its  use  as  an  auxiliary  expressing  the  Passive,  will  illus- 
trate my  meaning : 

a.  Venire  meaning  to  happen  ;  expressing  the  Passive ;  the  idea 
of  motion  weaker  than  in  the  original  use. 

.  Ma  non  sempre  agli  uccellatori  gV  ingegni  vengono  loro  fatti,  e 
agli  indovini  compositori  di  bugie  quello,  che  a  ventura  dieono, 
viene  loro  fatto. 

Giamb.  Oros.  v,  lY,  279. 

The  Latin  here  is :  Sed  non  semper  aucupatoribus  eventum  & 
iustructoribus  fallaciarum  haruspicibus,  opportuni  casus  suffragant. 

Oros.  V,  IV,  279. 


30         The  Use  of  Venire  and  Andare  as  Auxiliary  Verbs 

The  Italian  is  a  free  translation  of  the  Latin,  but  the  meaning 
is  clear  enough  :  But  not  always  do  the  tricks  of  bird-trappers 
succeed,  nor  does  that  which  lying  sooth-sayers  say  at  hazard 
(always),  come  to  pass.  The  Latin :  opportuni  casus  suffragant 
emphasizes  the  meaning  of  the  translation  :  viene  loro  fatto. 

.  II  cavallo  era  nudrito.  II  fante  non  potendolo  tenere,  si  si 
drizzo  verso  il  padiglione  del  Soldano  a  sua  forza.  II  Soldano 
aspettava  il  re  Ricciardo,  ma  non  li  venne  fatto. 

Novell.  LXiii,  73-4. 

Translation  :  The  horse  had  been  trained.  The  servant  not 
being  able  to  hold  him,  he  made  for  the  Sultan's  tent,  with  all  his 
might.  The  Sultan  was  expecting  King  Richard  (not  the  servant), 
but  it  did  not  so  come  to  pass. 

.  Come  il  Re  di  Francia  ordino  di  fare  eleggere  M.  Carlo  di 
Valos  Imperadore,  e  venneli  fallito. 

Villani  viii,  ci,  372. 

An  example  which  illustrates  my  meaning  very  well  indeed : 
venneli  fallito  =  it  came  failed  to  him  ;  that  is,  it  turned  out  a  failure. 

.  E  se  alcuna  volta  gli  venisse  predetla  alcuna  di  quelle  (cose 
casuali),  non  sarebbe  pero  che  n'avesse  scienzia,  .... 

Pass.  Sc.  300. 

Passavanti  is  here  speaking  of  the  prophetic  powers  of  the  devil. 
He  says  the  devil  cannot  foretell  future  events,  but  that  (to  trans- 
late the  above  example),  if,  now  and  then,  he  should  happen  to 
foretell  one  of  those  casual  events,  it  would  not  be  because  he  had 
actual  knowledge  of  it.  The  gli  is  in  the  dative  case  because  venire 
still  preserves  some  of  its  idea  of  motion.  The  literal  meaning  is  ; 
should  come  foretold  to  him;  that  is,  it  shoidd  happen  to  him  to  fore- 
tell. The  translation  which  the  phrase  might  have,  if  it  were  modern 
Italian  :  should  be  foretold  to  him,  would  damage  the  sense,  and  is 
impossible. 

For  other  examples  of.  : 

Giamb.  Oros.  v,  xxiv,  344,  and  Oros.  v,  xxiv,  345 ;  Villani 
X,  cxi.vi,  621  ;    X,  cxxxviii,  616  ;    ix,  xi,  385;    l,  xxx,  21  ; 


In  Early  Florentine  Prose.  31 

VII,  LVii,  228 ;  VI,  LX,  160 ;  ix,  l,  401-2  ;  ix,  cccv,  507  ;  ix,  ix, 
384 ;  x,  cix,  598  ;  xii,  xliv,  924  ;  xii,  lxxii,  955  ;  Pas8.  Pen. 
V,  IV,  141. 

In  the  above  examples,  then,  venire  used  with  past  participles, 
seems  to  have  come  to  have  the  meaning  of  the  French  annver, 
that  is,  to  happen,  to  come  to  pass. 

I  wish  to  emphasize  the  appearance,  which  I  have  already  tried 
to  illustrate,  that  this  meaning  is  the  natural  result  of  the  use  of 
venire  (which  was  already  used  metaphorically,  and  in  the  sense  of 
to  arrive)  with  Past  Participles. 

Now,  if  we  compare  this  idea  of  to  happen,  to  come  to  pass,  with 
the  idea  which  venire  expresses  in  modern  Italian,  when  used  as 
an  auxiliary  for  the  Passive ;  that  is,  the  idea  to  be  in  the  sense 
of  the  Latin  Passive,  it  is  plain  that  the  only  difference  between 
the  two  consists  in  the  idea  of  motion  which  is  found  in  the  former, 
and  which  is  nearly  absent  in  the  latter.  This  being  the  case,  if 
venii'e  with  Past  Participles,  and  meaning  to  happen,  to  come  to 
pass,  were  to  lose  its  idea  of  motion,  it  would  naturally  come  to 
mean  to  be,  and  would  express  the  pure  Passive.  That  the  tend- 
ency toward  losing  the  idea  of  motion,  already  illustrated,  was  not 
arrested  at  the  point  at  which  we  have  arrived,  appears  from 
further  examples. 

It  is  evident  that  there  is  much  less  of  an  idea  of  motion  in  to 
happen,  than  there  is  in  to  come.  This  being  the  case,  the  weaken- 
ing of  the  idea  of  motion  in  venire  with  Past  Participles,  would  be 
merely  a  continuation  of  the  same  process  which  seems  to  have 
begun  as  soon  as  venire  was  used  in  a  metaphorical  sense ;  that  is, 
as  far  back  as  we  have  any  knowletlge  of  the  verb,  even  in  Latin. 

Also,  it  is  worth  remembering  that,  in  the  case  of  the  use  of 
venire  with  adjectives,  with  the  meaning  become,  the  same  process 
seems  to  have  continued  until  the  idea  of  motion  is  almost  lost, 
and  venire  degno  came  to  mean  almost  simply  :  to  be  loorthy.  The 
weakening  of  the  idea  of  motion,  then,  in  the  case  of  the  use  with 
Past  Participles,  seems  to  be  merely  a  parallel  development  to  that 
in  the  case  of  the  use  with  adjectives. 

Every  fact,  therefore,  which  I  have  elicited  in  examination  of 
the  usQS  oi  venire,  tends  to  confirm  me  in  my  belief  that  I  am  right 


32         The  Use  of  Venire  and  Andare  as  Auxiliary  Verbs 

in  thus  tracing  the  development  which  ended  in  the  use  of  venire 
to  express  the  pure  Passive. 

I  will  now  give  a  few  examples  of  venire  used  with  Past  Parti- 
ciples, in  which  there  seems  to  be  less  of  an  idea  of  motion  expressed, 
than  in  those  just  given  above. 

b.  Approaching  the  meaning  to  he  •  expressing  the  Passive  ;  the 
idea  of  motion  still  weaker. 

.  Ben  dico  ch'  alcuna  volta  il  mandante  non  scrive  la  salutatione, 
o  per  eel  are  le  persone  se  la  lettera  venisse  data  altrui,  o  per  alcuna 
cagione,  .... 

Brun.  Rett.  Comm.  76. 

Here  venisse  data  may  be  translated  by :  should  happen  to  be 
given,  in  which  case  this  example  would  fall  among  those  given 
above.  But  it  may  also  be  just  as  well  translated  by  should  be 
given.  It  is  impossible  to  tell  which  of  the  two  translations  is  the 
more  correct,  and  this  example  shews  very  well  how  easy  it  was 
for  venire,  in  this  use,  to  lose  its  idea  of  motion,  and  to  pass  from 
the  meaning  to  happen  to  the  meaning  to  be.  From  the  fact  that 
venire  can  here  be  translated  as  a  pure  Passive  auxiliary,  I  suppose 
that  the  idea  of  motion  is  somewhat  weaker  than  in  the  examples 
given  above,  or,  at  any  rate,  that  the  idea  of  motion  is  wavering. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  in  the  examples  of  venire  =  to  happen, 
it  is  impossible  to  translate  the  verb  as  a  pure  Passive  auxiliary, 
without  evidently  iujuring  the  sense  of  the  sentence. 

.  .  .  . :  Ora  maggiormente  ci  dee  venir  fatto,  dappoi  che  vaca  lo 
'mperio,  e  massimamente  per  la  promessa,  e  saramento  fatto  per 
Papa  Chimento,  quando  il  iece  far  Papa. 

Villani  viii,  cr,  273. 

The  translation  may  be :  Now  it  is  all  the  more  probable  that 
it  will  be  done  to  us,  since,  etc.,  etc.  (that  is,  it  is  all  the  more  prob- 
able that  our  candidate  will  be  made  emperor).  Nevertheless,  it  is 
impossible  to  tell  whether  venire  expresses  any  idea  of  happening, 
or  not.  It  is  probable  that,  in  these  two  exam|)les  just  given,  and 
in  those  to  follow,  the  author  had  no  clear  idea  of  what  the  exact 


In  Early  Florentine  Prose.  33 

force  of  venire  was  ;  that  is,  the  idea  expressed  by  venire  was 
wavering  between  the  meaning  (o  happen  and  the  meaning  to  be. 
In  other  words,  whatever  idea  of  motion  there  is  conveyed  by 
venire,  is  faint. 

.  Per  laqual  cosa  riraescohita  la  diuisione  della  legione  tra 
collcgi,  quasi  per  gara  non  credendo  che  venisse  fatto,  raissono  a 
squittino  quello  di  loro  collegio,  ch'  era  tenuto  il  pin  menorao  de' 
Cardinali ;  .  .  .  . 

Villani  xi,  xxi,  697. 

"  non  credendo  che  venisse  fatto  "  may  mean  :  not  believing  that 
it  would  be  done, 

or  else :  not  believing  that  it  would  come  to  pass,  .... 

.  .  .  .,  che  li  dovea  essere  data  I'entrata  della  terra ;  e  per  sua 
sventura  nolli  venne  fatto  ;  .... 

Villani  xii,  i,  872. 

Translation  :....,  for  the  entrance  into  the  town  was  to  be 
given  to  him,  but,  unfortunately  for  him,  it  teas  not  done  for 
him  ;  .  .  .  . 

or  else  :  .  .  .  .,  it  did  not  come  to  pass  (to  him). 

.  Ma  chi  qui  la  volesse  toccare,  non  gli  verrebbe  fatto,  .... 

Pass.  Sc.  283. 

Translation  :  But  if  anyone  should  attempt  to  touch  it  (the 
glory  of  God)  here,  (that  is,  in  this  life)  it  would  not  be  done  to 
him  (that  is,  he  would  not  be  rewarded); 

or  else :  ....  it  would  not  happen  to  him. 

.  Tuttavia,  se  in  qucsto  caso,  o  in  qualunche  altro,  venisse 
nominata  altrui  nella  confessione  la  persona  con  cui  avesse  peccato, 
o  venisse  detto  I'altrui  peccato, ....  non  sarebbe  peccato,  anzi  mercede. 

Pass.  Pen.  v,  iv,  138. 

Translation  :  .  Nevertheless,  if  ...  .  the  person  with  whom  he 
had  sinned  should  be  named  (or  should  happen  to  be  named),  or  the 
sin  of  another  person  should  be  told  (or  should  happen  to  be  told), .... 


34         The  Use  of  Venire  and  Andare  as  Auxiliary  Verbs 

In  the  above  examples,  then,  the  exact  force  of  venire^  is  uncer- 
tain, and  seems  to  be  wavering  between  the  idea  :  to  happen  and 
the  idea  :  to  be  ;  that  is,  the  idea  of  motion  expressed  is  exceedingly- 
weak.  There  is  no  doubt  in  my  mind  that  venire,  in  these  exam- 
ples is  an  auxiliary  verb  expressing  the  Passive  voice,  but  whether 
it  expresses  the  pure  Latin  Passive,  or  conveys  some  idea  oi  happen- 
ing is  a  doubtful  question.  These  examples  may  then  be  taken  to 
represent  the  intermediate  stage  between  venire  meaning  to  happen, 
and  venire  expressing  the  pure  Passive. 

The  following  examples  illustrate  the  use  of  venire  with  Past 
Participles  in  its  fullest  development  up  to  the  last  half  of  the 
fourteenth  century;  they  are  all  from  Yillani  (1300-1348)  except 
one  from  Alberto  della  Piagentina  (1332).  They  represent  the 
nearest  approach  to  the  use  of  venire  as  an  auxiliary  expressing  the 
pure  Latin  Passive,  up  to  that  time :  the  idea  of  motion  seems  to 
i  have  almost  disappeared.^ 

c.  Meaning  to  be ;  expressing  the  pure  Latin  Passive ;  almost 
no  idea  of  motion. 

Di  quello  medesimo  maraviglioso  ordine,  per  quattro  parti  del 
mondo,  quattro  regni  principali  con  ordinati  gradi  soprastanti, 
fuoro ;  come  ecc.  .  .  .  De'  quali,  tra  il  primaio  e  quello  da  sezzo, 
cio6  tra  quello  di  Bambillouia  e  Romano,  quasi  tra  padre  vecchio 
e  figliuolo  piccolo,  I'Africano  e  quello  di  Macedonia  piccoli  in 
mezzo,  quasi  tutori  e  curatori  vennero  ricevuti  per  podesta  di  tempo, 
non  per  ragione  di  reditade. 

Giamb.  Oros.  ii,  1,  66. 

The  Latin  is :  .... :  eademque  ineffabiliore  ordiuatione  per 
quatuor  mundi  cardines,  quatuor  regnorum  principatus  fiiere  dis- 

tinctis  gradibus  eminentis :  ut,  etc quorum  inter  primura  & 

novissiraura,  id  est  inter  Babylonicum  et  Romanum,  quasi  inter 
patrem  senem  ac  filium  paruum,  Africanum  &  Macedonicum  breuia 

^  The  Latin  Passive,  like  the  German  werden  with  the  Past  Participle,  expresses 
an  entrance  into  a  condition,  so  that  venire  (no  matter  how  well  it  niav  seem  to  be 
translated  l)y  the  English  to  be)  needs  not  to  loie  entirely  its  idea  of  motion  in 
order  to  express  the  Latin  Passive,  lo  vengo  ucciso  corresponds  to  ich  werde 
getiidlet,  rather  than  to  1  am  killed.     Cf.  Meyer-LUbke :  op.  cit.  ill,  ^  304. 


In  Early  Florentine  Prose.  35 

et  media  (iiinsi  tutor  curatorque  venerunt,  potestate,  temporis,  non 

iure  hereilitatis,  admissa. 

Oros.  II,  1,  63-4. 

The  Latin  :  venerunt  ....  admissa  is  extraordinary,  and  seems 
to  have  the  meaning  :  came  to  be  admitted.  In  the  Italian  :  vennero 
ricevuti,  however,  vennero  is  undoubtedly  as  much  of  an  auxiliary 
representing  the  pure  Passive  as  it  would  be  in  the  same  phrase  in 
modern  Italian. 

.  .  .  . ;  e  come  fu  trattato,  venue  fatto. 

Villani  viii,  LXiii,  337. 

Translation  :....;  and  as  it  was  agreed,  so  it  ivas  done.  It 
may  be  said  that  venue  fatto  here  too  means  :  so  it  happened,  or 
turned  out,  and  this  translation  is  possible.  Nevertheless  the 
absence  of  an  indirect  object  such  as  loro  makes  such  a  translation 
less  likely  than  it  would  be  otherwise,  and  there  seems  to  be  no 
objection  to  the  translation  of  venue  by  was. 

.  II  qual  trattato  scoperto  con  danuo  di  loro  non  veune  loro  fornito. 

Villani  ix,  ccxii,  469. 

Translation  :  Which  agreement,  being  discovered  to  their  dam- 
age, was  not  performed  to  them.  As  far  as  can  be  seen,  there  is  no 
idea  of  happening  expressed  here. 

.  .   .   .,  e  gia  haueua  da  loro  la  'mpromessa,  laquale  poi  li 

venue  fornita. 

Villani  viii,  v,  292. 

Translation  :....,  and  already  he  had  from  them  the  promise 
which  loas  aftervfa.rd  fulfilled  to  him, 

.  Onde  il  Re  si  tenne  forte  grauato,  ma  non  potendo  bene  a  cio 
contraddire,  .  .  .  .,  acconsentl,  credendosi  si  adoperare  al  concilio 
di  Vienna,  che  gli  verrebbe  fatto  sua  intendimento. 

Villani  viii,  xci,  367. 

Here  again  some  doubt  may  be  raised  as  to  the  meaning  of  ver- 
rebbe fatto,  but  the  context  seems  to  mean  that  the  king  expected 


36         TJiQ  Use  of  Venire  and  Andare  as  Auxiliary  Verbs 

so  to  act,  at  the  council  of  Vienna,  that  his  intention  woxdd  he  per- 
formed to  him;  that  is,  would  be  granted  him  (by  the  council). 

.  La  qual  cosa  fu  rivelata  a  Messer  Mastino  per  uno  suo  antico 
conestabole,  ch'  era  di  quella  giura,  per  laqual  cosa  il  tradimento 
non  vennefatto,  .... 

Villani  xi,  viii,  691. 

.  .  .  .,  per  laqnal  cosa  il  tradimento  non  venne  fatto,  for  which 
reason,  the  betrayal  was  not  accomplished  .... 

.  Nelli  anni  di  Cristo  1328.  addi  12.  di  Maggio,  il   di  della 

Assensione  .   .    .    .,  Lodouico  il   Bauero,  che  si   facea  chiamare 

Iniperadore  venne  incoronato,  e  parato  con  1'  abito  Imperiale  in 

sul  pergamo,  .... 

Villani  x,  lxxxiii,  574. 

Translation  :  "  In  the  year  of  our  Lord,  1328,  on  the  twelfth  of 
May,  on  Ascension  day  .  .  .  .,  Lewis  the  Bavarian,  who  used  to 
cause  himself  to  be  called  "  Emperor,"  loas  crowned  and  arrayed 
with  the  imperial  dress,  upon  the  platform,  .  .  .  . " 

.  Or  non  sapevi  tu  i  nostri  costumi  ?  ne  che  Creso  Re  de'  Lidi 
poco  dinanzi  a  Cirro  spaurevole,  incontanente  poi  miserabile  alle 
fiamme  dell  fuoco  sommesso,  dalla  piova  dal  ciel  mandata  venisse 
difeso  ? 

Alb.  Piag.  II,  33. 

The  Latin  is  :  An  tu  mores  ignorabas  meos  ?  Nesciebas  Croesum 
regera  Lidorum  Cyro  paulo  ante  formidabilem,  mox  deinde  miseran- 
dum  regi ;  flammis  traditum  misso  coelitus  imbre  defensum  f 

Boeth.  Ill,  13b. 

In  questo  apparecchio  i  sopradetti  maestri  del  trattato,  ch'erano 
in  Siena, acciochfe  pienamente  venisselor  ornito,  mandarono  a  Firenze 
altri  a  trattare  tradimento  con  certi  grandi,  e  popolani  Ghibellini, 
ch'  erano  rimasi  in  Firenze,  .... 

Villani  vi,  Lxxx,  172. 

Translation  :  During  these  preparations  the  above-mentioned 
managers  of  the  agreement,  .  .  .  .,  so  that  it  should  be  fully  per- 
formed to  them,  etc. 


In  Early  Florentine  Prose.  37 

.  Con  tutto  che  per  molti  cittadini  si  fece  questione  se  potesee 

essei'  venuto  fornito  il  detto  traditnento,  non  essendo,  nella  citta 

possenti   luiomini  c'hauessero  risposto  al   tradimeuto  clie  non  si 

trou6  di  vero,  .... 

Villani  x,  cxviii,  G04. 

Translation  :  Altiiough  it  was  questioned  by  many  of  the  citizens, 
whether  the  said  treason  could  have  been  performed  .... 

.  .  .  .,  e  conoscendo  il  nial  sito  done  i  Fiorentini  erano  accampati, 

con  sagace  inganno,  fece  tenere  in  falsi  trattati  M.  Ramondo,  e'  1 

suo  consiglio  con  piii  di  quelle  castella  di  val  di  Nievole  per  farli 

indugiare  che  non  si  partissero,  e  leuassero  il  campo,  .  .  .  . ;  e  tra 

che  fn  tempo  piouoso,  e  I'inganno  de'  trattati,  li  venne  fatto  suo 

intendimento. 

Villani  ix,  ccv,  507. 

Considering  that  intendimento  is  here  the  subject  of  venne  fatto, 
and  that  the  context  preceding  explains  how  his  intention  was  to 
be  carried  out,  we  may  suppose  the  translation  to  be :  his  inten- 
tion was  carried  out. 

.  I  Fiorentini  per  lo  socorso  del  detto  Castello  di  Lucchio  trattato 

feciono  d'hauere  il  Castello,  e'l  ponte  di  Cappiano  in  su  la  Gui- 

sciana.     E?sendo  Castruccio  ad  oste  in  Carlagnana,  vi  caualcarono 

le  cauallate,  e  soldati  di  Firenze  infino  a  Empoli,  e  non  vegnendo 

fornito  il  tradimento  si  tornarono  in  Firenze  con  gran  riprensione 

dell'  una  impresa,  e  dell'  altra. 

Villani  ix,  cxcii,  462. 

Translation  :  .  .  .  .  since  the  betrayal  loas  not  carried  out  .... 
(.  .  .  .  the  betrayal  not  being  carried  out  .  .  .  .) 

.  Intra  li  altri  notabili,  e  orrevoli  cittadini,  e  antichi  Guelfi,  e 

fattisi  Bianchi  vi  fu  preso  M.  Donato  Alberti  giudice,  e  Nanni  de' 

Russoli  della  parte  del  vescouo.     Nanni  vegnendo  preso  fu  morto 

da  uno  de'  Tosinghi,  .... 

Villani  viii,  LX,  334. 

Translation  :  Nanni  on  being  captured  was  killed 


38  The  Use  of  Venire  and  Andare  as  Auxiliary  Vei'bs 

.  e  venia  fomito  il  trattato,  se  non  che  uno  che  'I  menaua  cadde 

d'uno  sporto,  e  veggendosi  alia  morte  in  confessione  il  manifestd  a 

un  frate,  .... 

Villain  VII,  cxxxvii,  251. 

Translation  :  And  the  agreement  would  have  been  carried  out, .  .  .  } 

Another  example  in  which  it  seems  doubtful  whether  venire  is 
used  as  au  auxiliary  or  not  is  :    Villani  vii,  cxxiii,  271. 


Remarks. 

1 .  Parallelism  between  the  use  of  venire  with  Past  Participles, 
and  that  with  Adjectives. 

I  wish  here  to  point  out  the  parallelism  between  the  supposed 
development  of  the  use  of  venire  with  Past  Participles,  and  that  of 
venire  with  adjectives : 

Venire  was  used  originally,  both  with  adjectives  and  with  Past 
Participles,  with  its  independent  meaning  of  to  come.  However, 
the  verb  came  to  be  used,  in  Latin  times,  with  the  meaning  (o 
arrive,  and  was  also  employed  in  metaphorical  senses.  Used  in 
metaphorical  senses,  venire  appears  to  continue  the  loss  of  the  idea 
of  motion,  the  beginning  of  which  loss  is  indicated  by  the  passage 
to  the  meaning  arrive.  It  is  here  that  the  supposed  development 
of  venire  as  used  with  Past  Participles,  and  that  of  venire  as  used 
with  adjectives,  separate.  Used  with  expressions  containing  an 
adjectival  idea,  such  as  in  grazia,  in  povertd,,  etc.,  it  seems  to 
acquire  the  meaning  to  come  to  be,  which  conveys  less  of  an  idea  of 
motion  than  to  arrive,  since  the  emphasis  is  on  the  being  rather 
than  on  the  coming.  And  when  the  verb  with  the  meaning  to 
come  to  be  is  used  in  close  construction  with  adjectives,  it  seems  to 

^  I  believe  the  translations  given  for  this  and  the  preceding  example*,  to  be 
correct  as  far  as  the  English  is  concerned.  However,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  English  method  of  expressing  the  Passive  by  lo  be  with  Past  Participles 
Ib,  to  a  certain  extent,  ambiguous.  These  translations  are  to  be  understood  in 
the  sense  of  the  Latin  Passive  which  includes  the  idea  of  an  enlrnnee.  into  a  condi- 
tion, that  is,  venire  here  is  not  absolutely  deprived  of  a  lingering  idea  of  motion. 
Cf.  note  to  p.  34. 


In  Early  Florentine  Prose.  39 

acquire  the  meaning  to  become^  conveying  still  less  of  an  idea 
of  motion. 

On  the  other  hand  venire  with  the  meaning  to  arrive,  when  used 
with  Past  Participles  seems  to  acquire  the  meaning  to  happen,  to 
come  to  pass,  with  the  loss  of  the  idea  of  motion,  which  might  be 
expected.  Lastly,  venire  meaning  to  happen,  continuing  to  lose 
the  idea  of  motion,  seems  to  acquire  the  meaning  to  be  (English) 
which  fits  it  to  be  used  as  an  auxiliary  expressing  the  pure 
Latin  Passive. 

The  same  cause,  the  gradual  loss  of  the  idea  of  motion,  seems  to 
have  operated  in  the  case  of  each  of  the  two  uses  (with  adjectives 
and  with  Past  Participles),  but  the  different  nature  of  the  two  parts 
of  speech  produced  a  different  result  in  each  case. 

2.  The  possible  influence  of  the  two  above  uses  the  one  upon 
the  other. 

These  two  developments  being  so  much  alike,  it  is  possible  that 
each  may  have  influenced  the  other,  and  encouraged  the  progress 
of  the  other  to  some  extent. 

As  to  what  influence  the  use  of  venire  as  an  auxiliary  for  the 
Passive,  may  have  had  upon  the  use  of  venire  with  adjectives,  it  is 
impossible  to  say.  Examples  of  venire  with  adjectives,  in  which 
the  verb  approaches  very  closely  the  meaning  to  be,  are  so  few  that 
it  is  probable  that  the  influence  amounted  to  very  little. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  more  likely  that  the  use  of  venire  with 
adjectives,  meaning  to  become,  had  a  considerable  effect  in  further- 
ing the  change  by  which  venire  with  Past  Participles,  passed  from 
the  meaning  to  happen  to  the  meaning  to  be. 

In  all  languages  past  participles  can  be  used  as  adjectives  ;  one 
has  merely  to  remember  how  we  say,  in  English,  that  the  meat  has 
been  cooked ;  and  again,  that  we  prefer  cooked  meat  to  raw  meat. 
That  the  same  occurs  in  Italian  is  hardly  worth  pointing  out : 
"  amor  che  a  nullo  amato  amar  perdona."  The  past  participle 
faito  is  used  as  an  adjective  with  exceptional  frequence,  and  occurs 
thus  in  the  old  language  as  well  as  in  the  modern  ;  for  example, 

....     Or,  a  guisa  di  morditore  (ed  avea  nome  Paolino),  fece  a 

Marco  una  cosi  fatta  quistione,  .... 

Novell.  XLVi,  54. 


40         The  Use  of  Venire  and  Andare  as  Auxiliary  Verbs 

This  word  is  especially  interesting  to  us  because  it  occurs  in 
many  of  the  examples  of  the  auxiliary  use  of  venire  with  Past 
Participles ;  and  it  seems  reasonable  to  suppose  that  when  a  verb 
is  commonly  used  in  a  given  way  with  such  a  word,  when  the 
latter  is  considered  an  adjective,  it  is  likely  to  be  used  in  the  same 
way  with  the  same  word,  when  the  latter  is  really  a  past  participle. 

But  beside  this,  in  Italian,  numbers  of  past  participles  of  the 
first  conjugation,  and  some  of  other  conjugations,  have  correspond- 
ing shorter  forms  which  are  adjectives.  Such,  for  example,  are 
aGconcio-acconciato,  desto-deslato,  erto-eretto,  etc.,  etc.^  Now  although 
these  adjectives  are  not  derived  from  the  corresponding  participles, 
and  have  always  been  used  as  adjectives,  as  has  been  pointed  out 
by  Quintescu,^  nevertheless,  as  that  writer  says  himself,  the  respec- 
tive meanings  of  adjective  and  participle  are  frequently  almost 
identical,  and  it  is  easily  conceivable  that  venire,  once  used  with 
such  adjectives,  with  a  certain  meaning,  might  be  used  with  the 
same  meaning,  with  the  corresponding  Past  Participles. 

Such  considerations  as  these,  lead  me  to  believe  it  quite  possible 
that  when  venire  had  come  to  be  used  with  Past  Participles,  with 
the  meaning  to  happen,  the  example  of  the  very  similar  use  of 
venire  with  adjectives,  with  the  meaning  to  become  tending  toward 
the  meaning  to  be,  may  have  contributed  to  the  change  from  to 
happen  to  to  be.  Also  it  is  possible  that  the  difficulty  of  dis- 
tinguishing some  of  the  past  participles,  with  which  venire  was 
used,  from  adjectives,  may  have  emphasized  the  similarity  between 
the  two  uses,  and  so  have  encouraged  the  same  change. 

3.    Venire  versus  Essere  as  an  auxiliary  for  the  Passive. 

Supposing  venire  to  have  passed  from  the  meaning  to  happen  to 
one  approaching  that  of  to  be,  it  would  seem  that  the  mere  fact 
that  it  expressed  an  idea  similar  to  that  expressed  by  the  regular 
auxiliary  for  the  Passive,  essere,  would  cause  it  to  be  used  likewise 
as  an  auxiliary  for  the  Passive.  This  may  be  true,  but  at  the 
same  time  there  is  another  cause  for  the  use  of  venire  in  this  way. 

iCf.  Blanc,  op.  r;;<.,  329-341. 

' "  Ueher  eine  verinuthlich  aiis  dem  Particip  abgeleitete  Adjectivalform  im 
Italieniscben  "     A.  n.  S.  XXXVII,  197. 


Jn  Early  Florentine  Prose.  41 

Diez  makes  a  distinction  between  "Perfective"  verbs  (verbs 
expressing  momentary  activity)  and  "  Imperfect ive"  verbs  (those 
expressing  an  enduring  activity),  saying  that  with  Past  Participles 
of  the  former  kind  of  verbs,  when  nsed  in  the  Present  tense,  exsere 
fails  to  express  the  Present  Passive,  and  instead  corresponds  to  the 
Latin  Perfect  tense  composed  in  the  same  way,  with  esse  and 
Past  Participles.  For  example,  "  il  nemico  e  batlnlo  "  means  the 
same  as  '' hosils  victiis  est,^^  thus  expressing  an  event  which  is  past 
at  the  time  of  speaking.  On  the  other  hand  "  egll  ^  amato  da 
tiUti "  corresponds  to  "  amatur  ab  omnibii^^."  ^ 

Meyer-Liibke  objects  to  this  distinction,  and  holds  that,  in  tenses 
such  as  the  Present  and  Imperfect,  essere  fails  to  express  the  corre- 
sponding Passive  tense  in  Latin  as  well  with  "  Imperfective" 
verbs  as  with  "  Perfective."  ^ 

However  that  may  be,  it  is  true  that  venire  fulfills  the  function 
of  the  Latin  Passive  where  essere  fails.  For  example,  in  cases 
such  as  the  following  : 

.  I  Fiorentini  per  lo  soccorso  del  detto  Castello  di  Lucchio  trattato 
feciono  d'hauere  il  Castello,  e'l  ponte  di  Cappiano  in  su  la  Guisciaua. 
Essendo  Castruccio  ad  oste  in  Carfagnana,  vi  caualcarono  le  caual- 
late,  e  soldati  di  Firenze  infino  a  Empoli,  e  non  vegnendo  fornito  il 
tradimento  si  tornarono  in  Firenze  con  gran  riprensione  delF  una 
impresa,  e  dell'  altra. 

Villani,  ix,  cxcii,  462. 

Here  if  we  were  to  substitute  essendo  fornito  for  vegnendo  fornito, 
it  is  clear  that  the  sense  would  be  altered,  and  we  should  no  longer 
have  the  Present  Passive. 

Venire,  then,  being  so  well  fitted  to  supply  the  failings  of  the 
regular  auxiliary  verb  essere,  it  would  be  exceedingly  strange  if  it 
had  not  been  pressed  into  the  service.  That  the  shortcomings  of 
essere  were  keenly  felt  is  shewn  by  the  use  of  periphrases,  imper- 
sonal expressions  such  as,  "  button  il  nemico,"  ^  and  the  reflexive 
forms,  as  in  si  uccide  il  malfattore.     Diez  mentions  these  methods 

*  Diez :  op.  ciL,  ill,  202-4.  » Mejer-Lubke :  ap.  cit.,  iii,  g  304. 

'See  Diez  ib. 


42         The  Use  of  Venire  and  Andare  as  Auxiliary  Verbs. 

of  providing  for  the  failings  of  essere,  and  adds  also  that  venire  is 
used  in  this  way  instead.' 

4.    Frequence  of  the  Appearance  of  the  Uses  Discussed. 

The  examples  of  the  use  of  venire  with  Past  Participles,  as  an 
auxiliary  for  the  Passive,  which  I  have  found,  are  as  follows  : 

a.  venire  meaning  to  happen : 

Giamb.  Oros.  v,  iv,  279  ;  v,  xxiv,  344.  Oros.  v,  iv,  279 ;  v, 
XXIV,  345.  Novell,  lxiii,  73-4.  Villani  i,  xxx,  21 ;  vi,  lx, 
160;  viT,  LVir,  228;  viii,  ci,  372;  ix,  ix,  384;  ix,  xr,  385; 

IX,  L,  401-2;  ix,^ccv,  507;  x,  cix,  598;  x,  cxxxviii,  616; 

X,  cxLVi,  621 ;   XII,  XLiv,  924 ;    xii,  lxxii,  955 ;    Pass.  Pen. 
V,  IV,  141.     Pass.  Sc.  300. 

b.  Approaching  the  meaning  to  be. 

Brun.  Rett.  Gomm.  76.  Villani  viii,  ci,  273 ;  xi,  xxi,  697  ; 
XII,  I,  872.     Pass.  Pen.  v,  iv,  138.     Pass.  Sc.  283. 

c.  Meaning  to  be. 

Giamb.  Oros.  ii,  I,  66.  Oros.  ii,  i,  63-4.  Villani,  vi,  Lxxx, 
172  ;  VII,  cxxiii,  271  ;  vii,  cxxviil^  251  ;  viii,  v,  292  ;  viii,  lx, 
334 ;  viii,  LXiii,  337  ;  viii,  xci,  367  ;  ix,  cxcii,  462  ;  ix,  ccv, 
507  ;  IX,  ccxii,  469  ;  x,  lxxxiii,  574  ;  x,  oxviii,  604  ;  xi,  viii, 
691.     Alb.  Piag.  ii,  33.     Boeth.  iii,  13b. 


'While  speaking  of  "perfective"  and  "  Imperfi'ctive"  verbs,  so-called  by 
Diez,  I  may  say  tliat  the  great  grammarian,  continuina;,  points  out  the  fact  that 
the  past  participles  of  "  Perfective"  verbs,  when  used  with  the  Present  tense  of 
essere,  become  adjectives,  so  that,  illavoro  ifinilo,  comes  to  mean:  the  work  is  com- 
plete; il  fancuiUo  deslato  comes  to  mean:  the  child  is  awake,  and  so  on.  In  this 
way  we  have  a  large  class  of  participles  which  have  become  adjectives,  and 
which,  together  with  the  parallel  fornjs  mentioned  .ibove  (see  Remark  2), 
would  add  to  the  indueiice  which  the  use  of  venire  with  adjectives  would  have  on 
the  use  with  Past  Participles. 


VITA. 

I,  James  Eustace  Shaw,  was  l)orn  at  Dewsbury,  Yorkshire,  Eng- 
land, on  July  17th,  1876,  and  lived  at  Rome,  Italy,  from  1878  to 
1889.  From  1889  to  1892  I  was  at  King  Henry  Vlllth's  School, 
Coventry,  England.  In  September,  1893,  I  came  to  Baltimore  and 
entered  the  college  of  Johns  Hopkins  University.  Having  obtained 
the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts,  I  entered  the  department  of  Romance 
Languages  of  the  postgraduate  division  of  the  university,  and  spent 
four  years  in  studying  for  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy. 
During  the  seven  years  thus  passed  at  the  Johns  Hoj^kins  Univer- 
sity, I  spent  five  summers  in  Euro})e,  all  but  one  in  Italy.  It  has 
been  my  good  fortune  to  hold  a  university  scholarship  during  the 
year  1899,  and  a  fellowship  during  the  year  1900. 

I  wish  to  express  ray  thanks  first  to  Professor  Menger  of  Bryn 
Mawr  College,  who  introduced  me  to  the  undergraduate  work 
here,  whose  advice  has  been  at  my  disposal  ever  since,  and  who 
suggested  to  me  the  subject  of  this  dissertation.  I  am  also  exceed- 
ingly indebted  to  Professors  Harden,  Armstrong  and  Ogden,  and 
to  Dr.  Keidel,  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  University  for  instruction 
and  continual  kindness.  Professor  Armstrong  especially  has  been 
an  ever  ready  source  of  help  to  me  during  the  last  three  years. 
Above  all  am  I  indebted  to  Professor  Elliott  of  this  University, 
not  only  for  constant  help  and  generous  advice  during  my  last 
four  years  of  work,  but  also  for  his  kindly  interest  in  me  during 
my  undergraduate  years. 

James  Eustace  Shaw, 


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